Phase 7

The Influence of the War on Other Nations

 The morale effect of this victory at Cannae was such that most of southern Italy joined Hannibal's cause. After Cannae, the Hellenistic southern provinces of Arpi, Salapia, Herdonia, Uzentum, including the cities of Capua and Tarentum (two of the largest city-states in Italy) in 216 BCE revoked their allegiance to Rome and pledged their loyalty to Hannibal. As Livy noted, "How much more serious was the defeat of Cannae than those which preceded it, can be seen by the behavior of Rome's allies; before that fateful day, their loyalty remained unshaken, now it began to waver for the simple reason that they despaired of Roman power”(Livy, 22.61.10, trans. Healy, Mark. Cannae: Hannibal Smashes Rome's Army).   In the same year in 216 BCE, the Greek cities in Sicily revolted against Roman political control, while the Macedonian king, Philip V, pledged his support to Hannibal, initiating the First Macedonian War against Rome. Hannibal also secured an alliance with the new King Hieronymus of Syracuse.

    However, in spite of the tremendous blow to the cause of Rome, Hannibal may have not believed he had the resources and personnel needed to launch a successful attack or siege against the city the size of Rome. ((Dodge, Theodore (1994). Hannibal.) He was once again uncertain of the feasibility of such an attack and he spent a long time pondering it.  Had he taken the city that would have put an end to the Rome and its power.  While he hesitated, the Romans were able to regroup and the opportunity was lost.  The Romans, of course, looked back on Hannibal’s indecision as what saved Rome from complete defeat.  Perhaps Hannibal never intended to conquer Rome itself and was thinking of another strategy.    Hannibal sent a delegation to Rome to negotiate a peace and another one offering to release his Roman prisoners of war for ransom, but Rome rejected all offers.  The policy of Rome was as long as their enemy was on their soil they would not talk of terms.  Furthermore, the Macedonian navy was no match for the Roman navy, so they were unable to help him either. 

Amphitheatre in Capua

   An important defection to Hannibal in 216 BCE was the city of Capua, the second largest city in Italy, where Hannibal made his new base.  This city could have been the rival to Rome. Before he took the city the inhabitants claimed relationship with Rome.  However, after declaring their friendship with Hannibal, the possibility of becoming the supreme city in Italy with the evident Roman disasters proved too strong a temptation.  The Capuans had no obligations to him, but provided the harbor through which Hannibal received reinforcements.  Nevertheless, what disappointed him was that not many of the centrally located Roman cities wanted to join him as allies.

  After this, Hannibal went about setting up a Carthaginian alliance in Italy. Ancient Capua was located where Santa Maria Capua Vetere is now. It was located near the eastern coast of Italy. So Hannibal had moved from west to east after the battle of Cannae.  The importance of Capua increased steadily during the 3rd century BCE, and at the beginning of the Second Punic War it was considered to be only slightly smaller than Rome and Carthage. The Capuans themselves were able to furnish 30,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry. Until after the defeat of Cannae it remained faithful to Rome. But, after a vain demand, that one of the Roman consuls should always be selected from it in order to secure regional supremacy in the event of a Carthaginian victory, it defected to Hannibal. Hannibal made this city his winter quarters. The people of Capua voluntarily received him and his army. Livy and others have suggested that the luxurious conditions were Hannibal's "Cannae" because his troops became soft and demoralized by luxurious living. Historians from Bosworth Smith onwards have been skeptical of this, observing that his troops gave as good an account of themselves in battle after that winter as before. 

  Earlier in history in 312 BCE, Capua became connected with Rome by the construction of the Via Appia, one of the most important of the military highways in Italy:

Map of the Via Appia in Ancient Italy

The gate by which it left the Servian walls of Rome bore the name Porta Capena; perhaps the only case in which a gate in this city bears the name of the place to which it led.  Therefore, it occupied a strategic position in Hannibal’s time.

Remains of Tarentum

   The city of Tarentum also came over to him around that time. Here he gained a port where he could receive supplies as well. This city was almost as big as Capua.    This caused the Romans to move their fleet from Tarentum to Brundisium. 

    After Cannae, besides Capua, the other towns of Apulia of Salapia, Arpia, Herdonia and many of the Lucanians went over to him.  However, his greatest gain was the city of Capua.  The cities if Hirpini and Claudini joined Hannibal when he marched to the north of Capua.  By 215 BCE, Hannibal’s alliance system included the bulk of southern Italy, except for some Greek cities along the coast (except for Croton, which was captured by his allies).  The independent Gaul he had established in northern Italy was still out of Roman control.  In 215 BCE, Hannibal was able to take Casuiliner, the important city for controlling Campania.  Nevertheless, the area between Campania and the Po River was nominally in Roman hands.  If Hannibal did place garrisons to control the areas he conquered as he passed from the north to the south of Italy they did not last long.  One must not forget that Rome also possessed a good navy that had been victorious in almost every battle it had with Carthage thanks to the covus.  Rome still had legions to spare so they were by no means totally defeated. The essence of Hannibal’s campaign in Italy was to fight the Romans using local resources and raising recruits from among the local population and forming alliances against the Romans. 

  After hearing of Rome's disastrous defeat at the hands of Hannibal at Cannae in 216 BCE, Philip V of Macedon had sent ambassadors to Hannibal's camp in Italy to negotiate an alliance. There they concluded it in the summer of 215 BCE a treaty, the text of which is given by Polybius. In it, they pledged in general terms, mutual support and defense and to be enemies to each other's enemies (excepting current allies). Specifically they promise support against Rome, and that Hannibal shall have the right to make peace with Rome, but that any peace would include Philip V and that Rome would be forced to give up control of Corcyra, Apollonia, Epidamnus, Pharos, Dimale, Parthini, and Atintania and "to restore to Demetrius of Pharos all those of his friends now in the dominion of Rome.

    On their way back to Macedon, Publius Valerius Flaccus captured Philip V’s emissaries along with emissaries from Hannibal, commander of the Roman fleet patrolling the Adriatic Sea.   Flaccus' fleet of twenty-five warships already at Brundisium, were given orders to guard the Roman Adriatic coast, and to try to determine Philip's intent and if necessary cross over to Macedonia, keeping Philip V confined there (Livy, 23.38). Livy says that 20 ships were outfitted and along with the five ships that transported the agents to Rome, were sent to join Flaccus' fleet of 25 ships. In the same passage he says that 30 ships left Ostia for Brundisium and talks about a combined fleet of 55. Walbank, p. 75, note 2, says that the 55 number given by Livy is a mistake, citing "Holleaux, 187, n. 1.").

Ruins of Beneventum

  Meanwhile Hannibal’s subordinate Hanno was able to raise troops in Samnium, but the Romans intercepted these levies in the Battle of Beneventum in 214 BCE.  Livy gives a brief description of the battle, which was part of the Roman campaign to subdue the southern Italian states that had joined Hannibal after the Battle of Cannae.  After the battle of Cannae, he had not been able to break up the Roman leagues or alliances.  Not a single member of the Roman Confederacy ever broke its treaty with Rome; the roots of Roman power in the peninsula were well established, based upon time and the mutual benefit that both Rome and her subordinate allies had received from the alliance.  To be sure, there were colonies that had been detached from the Confederacy in Cisalpine Gaul, but no seriously demoralizing blow occurred to their leagues or alliances (Dodge, Theodore (1994). Hannibal).   

Philip V of Macedon

  Rome's preoccupation with its war against Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of Macedon to attempt to extend his power westward. According to the ancient Greek historian Polybius, an important factor in Philip's decision to take advantage of this opportunity was the influence of Demetrius of Pharos.

  The young king whose father also named Demetrius, becoming one of Philip’s most trusted advisors, received Demetrius warmly. According to Polybius, Demetrius was instrumental in turning Philip's ambitions toward Illyria and Rome. In 217 BCE when Philip V learned of the victory of Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, over the Romans, at Lake Trasimene, Philip V at first showed the letter only to Demetrius. Perhaps seeing a chance to recover his possessions in Illyria and exact a measure of revenge on Rome, Demetrius immediately advised the young king to make peace with the Aetolians, with who Philip V was currently at war, and turn his attentions westward. In a summary of the strategy the situation called for, Polybius makes Demetrius say:

   “Italy, and your crossing into it, is the first step in the acquirement of universal empire, to which no one has a better claim than yourself. And now is the moment to act when the Romans have suffered a reverse” (Polybius, 5.101).

  Philip, at once began negotiations with the Aetolians. At a conference on the coast near Naupactus, Philip met the Aetolian leaders, and a peace treaty was concluded (Polybius, 5.103).  Polybius quotes the Aetolian Agelaus of Naupactus as having given the following speech in favor of peace:

“ For even now it is evident to any one who pays even a moderate attention to public affairs, that whether the Carthaginians conquer the Romans, or the Romans the Carthaginians, it is in every way probable that the victors will not remain contented with the empire of Sicily and Italy. They will move forward: and will extend their forces and their designs farther than we could wish. Wherefore, I beseech you all to be on your guard against the danger of the crisis, and above all you, O King. You will do this, if you abandon the policy of weakening the Greeks, and thus rendering them an easy prey to the invader; and consult on the contrary for their good as you would for your own person, and have a care for all parts of Greece alike, as part of your own domains. If you act in this spirit, the Greeks will be your warm friends and faithful coadjutors in all your undertakings; while foreigners will be less ready to form designs against you, seeing with dismay the firm loyalty of the Greeks. If you are eager for action, turn your eyes to the west, and let your thoughts dwell upon the wars on the Roman Peninsula.”

  Philip V had spent the winter of 217–216 BCE building a fleet of 100 warships and training men to row them, and according to Polybius, it was a practice that "hardly any Macedonian king had ever done before”(Polybius, 5.109).   Macedon probably lacked the resources to build and maintain the kind of fleet necessary to match the Romans (Walbank, p. 69; Polybius, 5.1, 5.95, 5.108)  Polybius says that Philip had no "hope of fighting the Romans at sea"(Polybius, 5.109),  perhaps referring to a lack of experience and training.  At any rate, Philip V chose to build lembis.

A Greek Lembis

  These were the small fast galleys used by the Illyrians. They had a single bank of oars and were able to carry 50 soldiers in addition to the rowers (Wilkes, p. 157; Polybius, 2.3.). With these, Philip V could only hope to avoid or evade the Roman fleet, preoccupied as he hoped it would be with Hannibal, and based, as it was, at Lilybaeum in western Sicily (Polybius, 5.10) so he thought.

  Philip V had in the meantime expanded his territories west along the Apsus and Genusus river valleys, right up to the borders of Illyricum.  Philip's plan was it seems, to first take the Illyrian coasts, conquer the area between the coasts and Macedon, and use the new land link to provide a rapid route for reinforcements across the narrow straits to the Roman Peninsula (Walbank, F. W. (1940), Philip V of Macedon).  At the beginning of summer, Philip V and his fleet left Macedon, sailed through the Euripus Strait, between the island of Euboea and Boeotia on the Greek mainland, and then rounded Cape Malea, before dropping anchor off the Islands of Cephalonia and Leucas, to await word of the location of the Roman fleet. Informed that it was still at Lilybaeum, he sailed north to Apollonia in Illyria.

  However, as the Macedonian fleet neared the island of Sazan, Philip V heard a report that some Roman quinqueremes had been spotted headed for Apollonia. Convinced that the entire Roman fleet was sailing to apprehend him, Philip ordered an immediate return to Cephalonia. Polybius speaks of "panic" and "disorder" to describe the fleet's hasty retreat, and says that in fact the Romans had sent only a squadron of ten ships, and that because of "inconsiderate alarm", Philip V had missed his best chance to achieve his aims in Illyria, returning to Macedon, "without loss indeed, but with considerable dishonor" (Polybius, 5.110).

  In the late summer of 214 BCE, Philip V again attempted an Illyrian invasion by sea, with a fleet of 120 lembi. He captured Oricum, which was lightly defended, and sailing up the Aous (modern Vjosë) river, he besieged Apollonia (Walbank, F. W. (1940), Philip V of Macedon.),

  Meanwhile the Romans having been forced to remove their fleet from Tarentum to Brundisium had to continue to watch the movements of Philip. A legion was sent in support, all under the command of the Roman propraetor Marcus Valerius Laevinus (Livy, 24.10–11, 20).   Upon receiving word from Oricum of events in Illyria, Laevinus crossed over with his fleet and army. Landing at Oricum, Laevinus was able to retake the town with little fighting.

  Meanwhile Sicily that was not directly connected with the Roman Peninsula became involved. Syracuse in Sicily was important for securing a seaport for supplies since Lilybaeum remained in Roman hands.  Hieronymus succeeded his father Heiro II the old Tyrant of Syracuse. Hieronymus was dissatisfied with his position in the Roman alliance, aided Hannibal. Therefore, Hannibal dispatched two of his lieutenants, who were of Syracusan origin to him.  They succeeded in winning Syracuse over at a price.

  In Syracuse Hieronymus (Greek: 231–214 BCE) was the tyrant of Syracuse. He succeeded his grandfather, Hiero II, in 215 BCE. He was at this time only fifteen years old, and he ascended the throne in a crisis full of peril, for the battle of Cannae had given a shock to the Roman world. The influence of which had been felt in Sicily; and though it had not shaken the fidelity of the aged Hiero, yet a large party at Syracuse was already disposed to abandon the alliance of Rome for that of Carthage. The young prince had already given indications of weakness, if not depravity of disposition, which had alarmed his grandfather, and caused him to confide the guardianship of Hieronymus to a council of fifteen persons, among who were his two sons-in-law, Andranodorus and Zoippus. But the objects of this arrangement were quickly frustrated by the ambition of Andranodorus, who, in order to get rid of the interference of his colleagues, persuaded the young king to assume the reins of government, and himself set the example of resigning his office, which was followed by the other guardians. Hieronymus now became a mere tool in the hands of his two uncles, both of whom were favorable to the Carthaginian alliance – and Thrason, the only one of his counselors who retained any influence over his mind, and who was a staunch friend of the Romans, was soon gotten rid of by a charge of conspiracy.

   The young king now sent ambassadors to Hannibal and the envoys of that general, Hippocrates and Epicydes, were welcomed at Syracuse with the highest honours. On the other hand, the deputies sent by Appius Claudius, the Roman praetor in Sicily, were met with disdain and the utmost contempt.  It was evident that Hieronymus was preparing for immediate hostilities. He sent ambassadors to Carthage, to conclude a treaty with that power, by the terms of which the river Himera was to be the boundary between the Carthaginians and Syracusans in Sicily but he quickly raised his demands, and, by a second embassy, laid claim to the whole island for himself. The Carthaginians readily promised every thing, in order to secure his alliance for the moment, and he assembled an army of fifteen thousand men, with which he was preparing to take the field, having previously dispatched Hippocrates and Epicydes to sound the disposition of the cities subject to Rome, but his plans were soon brought to an end. A band of conspirators, at the head of who was Deinomenes, fell upon him in the streets of Leontini, and dispatched him with numerous wounds, before his guards could come to his aid in 214 BCE.  The short reign of Hieronymus, which had lasted only 13 months, had presented the most striking contrast to that of his grandfather, this story is recorded by Polybius.  He believed most of the corruption stories concerning his reign was false and was just another example of Roman propaganda.

   Meanwhile back on the mainland, Marcus Claudius Marcellus ( c. 268 – 208 BCE), five times elected as consul of the Roman Republic, was an important Roman military leader during the Gallic War of 225 BCE and the Second Punic War.  Marcus Claudius Marcellus re-emerged onto both the political and military scene during the Second Punic War, in which he took part in important battles. In 216 BCE, Marcellus became a praetor in the third year of the Second Punic War elected by the senate. A praetor served either as an elected magistrate or as the commander of an army, the latter of which duties Marcellus was selected to fulfill in Sicily (Smith, William, Sir, ed. "M. Claudius M. F M. N. Marcellus", A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology).  Unfortunately, as Marcellus and his men were preparing to ship to Sicily, his army was recalled to Rome owing to the devastating losses at Cannae, one of the worst defeats in Roman history (Lendering, Jona. "Marcus Claudius Marcellus", Livius: Articles on Ancient History).   By the orders of the Senate, Marcellus was to dispatch 1,500 of his men to Rome to protect the city after the terrible defeat by Hannibal of Carthage. With his remaining army, along with remnants of the army from Cannae, (who were considered to have been disgraced by the defeat and by surviving it), Marcellus camped near Suessola, a city in the region of Campania in Southern Italy. At this point, part of the Carthaginian army began to make a move for the city of Nola. Marcellus repelled the attacks and managed to keep the city from the grasp of Hannibal. Although the battle at Nola was rather unimportant in regards to the Second Punic War as a whole, the victory was "important from its moral effect, as the first check, however slight, that Hannibal had yet received" (Smith, William, Sir, ed. "M. Claudius M. F M. N. Marcellus", A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology).

  Then, in 215 BC, the Dictator M. Junius Pera, who wanted to consult with him about the future conduct of the war, summoned Marcellus to Rome. After this meeting, Marcellus earned the title of proconsul.  In the same year, when the consul L. Postumius Albinus was killed in battle, Marcellus was unanimously chosen by the Roman people to be his successor. Livy and Plutarch tell us a bad omen occurred, allegedly because the other consul was also a plebeian. Marcellus stepped aside and Q. Fabius Maximus Cunctator took his place. Supposedly, the senate (interpreting the gods) disapproved of having two plebeian consuls (Smith, William, Sir, ed. "M. Claudius M. F M. N. Marcellus", A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology).   Marcellus was appointed proconsul, whereupon, in 215 BC he defended the city of Nola, once again, from the rear guard of Hannibal’s army. In the following year, 214 BC, Fabius Maximus and Marcellus were elected as consuls. For a third time, Marcellus defended Nola from Hannibal and even captured the small but significant town of Casilinum.

Walls of the City of Nola

  Hannibal could win allies, but defending his allies against the Romans was a new and difficult problem, as the Romans could still field multiple armies greatly outnumbering his own forces.  With the situation as it was, Hannibal seemed unable to go to the aid of his allies when the Roman army threatened them and retook the territory.  Either he was short of men or supplies he was not at the right location. As an aggressive fighting general, he could conquer territory, but as a defender of his allies, it was a different story.

   In Syracuse However, Hieronymus the tyrant of Syracuse had been deposed; the new Syracusan leaders attempted reconciliation with Rome, but could not quell the Roman suspicions and then aligned themselves with the Carthaginians. In 214 BCE, Marcus Claudius Marcellus arrived in Sicily; Marcellus attacked the city of Leontini, where the two Syracusan rulers were residing. After successfully storming the city, Marcellus had 2,000 Roman deserters (who had been hiding in the city) killed, and moved to lay siege to Syracuse itself.   At this point, several cities in the province of Sicily rose in rebellion against Roman rule. The siege lasted for two long years, partly because the military machines of the famous inventor Archimedes thwarted the Roman effort.

Archimedes of Syracuse

  Archimedes of Syracuse (“Archimedes". Collins Dictionary.) was an Ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical Greek Antiquity (287 BCE – c.212 BCE). A man who was able to invent weapons for war.

    One weapon he invented was called The Claw of Archimedes was a weapon that he is said to have designed in order to defend the city of Syracuse. Also known as "the ship shaker," the claw consisted of a crane-like arm from which a large metal grappling hook was suspended. When the claw was lowered on an attacking ship, the arm would swing upwards, lifting the ship out of the water and possibly sinking it.  Another weapon was named the heat ray. 

Archimedes’ Heat Ray

 The 2nd century CE author Lucian wrote that during the Siege of Syracuse (c. 214–212 BCE), Archimedes destroyed enemy ships with fire. Centuries later, Anthemius of Tralles mentions burning-glasses as Archimedes' weapon ( Hippias, 2 (cf. Galen, On temperaments 3.2, who mentions pyreia, "torches"); Anthemius of Tralles). The device, sometimes called the "Archimedes heat ray", focused sunlight onto approaching ships, causing them to catch fire.   Archimedes also has been given credit with improving the power and accuracy of the catapult, and with inventing the odometer during the First Punic War. The odometer is described as a cart with a gear mechanism that dropped a ball into a container after each mile traveled (“Ancient Greek Scientists: Hero of Alexandria“. Technology Museum of Thessaloniki).

  Meanwhile, leaving the bulk of the Roman legion in the command of Appius Claudius at Syracuse, Marcellus and a small army roamed Sicily, conquering opponents and taking such rebellious cities as Helorus, Megara, and Herbessus.

  After Marcellus returned and continued the siege, the Carthaginians attempted to relieve the city, but were repulsed. Overcoming formidable resistance and the ingenious devices of Archimedes, the Romans finally took the city in the summer of 212 BCE. Plutarch wrote that Marcellus, when he had previously entered the city for a diplomatic meeting with the Syracusans, had noticed a weak point in its fortifications. He made his attack at this fragile spot, using a night attack by a small group of handpicked soldiers to storm the walls and open the gates (Smith, William, Sir, ed. "M. Claudius M. F M. N. Marcellus", A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology).   During the fighting, Archimedes was killed, an act Marcellus regretted (Rorres, Chris. "Death of Archimedes: Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences).   Plutarch writes that the Romans rampaged through the city, taking as much of the plunder and artwork that they could find (Lendering, Jona. "Marcus Claudius Marcellus", Livius: Articles on Ancient History).

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